NASA

This astronaut crossed the Kármán Line (100 km), the internationally accepted boundary of space.

Crossed Kármán Line

Moon Flyer

William A. Anders was a retired Major General in the U.S. Air Force Reserve and a former NASA astronaut born on October 17, 1933, in Hong Kong. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1955, earned a master’s degree in Nuclear Engineering in 1962, and completed Harvard Business School’s Advanced Management Program in 1979. Selected as a NASA astronaut in 1964, Anders served as the lunar module pilot for Apollo 8 in December 1968, the first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, and accumulated more than 6,000 flight hours. He later served as Executive Secretary of the National Aeronautics and Space Council, a commissioner of the Atomic Energy Commission, the first chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and U.S. Ambassador to Norway. After leaving government service, he held executive positions at General Electric, Textron, and General Dynamics, where he became chairman and chief executive officer in 1991. Anders received numerous honors for his military, scientific, and aerospace achievements, including the Hubbard Medal for Exploration and several distinguished service awards. He retired from General Dynamics in 1994 and was recognized for his significant contributions to space exploration, nuclear regulation, and the aerospace industry. Courtesy of NASA.

Apollo 8

"An outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology." -- Chairman of the Soviet Intercosmos program on the U.S. Apollo 8 mission, the first flight to take people to the Moon. Apollo 8 was originally meant to be the first test of the lunar lander in Low Earth Orbit. But when delays with the lander began to threaten the goal of landing a person on the Moon by the end of 1969, Apollo 8 was radically changed to a crewed lunar orbit mission just four months before launch. The crew was also completely changed. The mission marked the first crewed launch of the Saturn V rocket, the first time the Saturn V performed the critically precise trans-lunar injection burn to send a craft outward to the Moon, the first time humans left Low Earth Orbit, the first time humans entered the gravity of another space object, the first time a person saw Earthrise over the lunar surface, the first live TV broadcast of humans from orbit of another celestial body, the first time a crewed spacecraft orbited more than one space body, and the first time any human saw the entire Earth in one view. Apollo 8 is often hailed as the most significant flight leading to the success of the Apollo lunar landings. The flight solidified the U.S.'s lead in the Space Race against the Soviet Union.

The main Apollo spacecraft was a Command and Service Module designed to take three astronauts to and from the Moon’s orbit and provide access to the lunar lander during missions. After the Moon program ended, Apollo spacecraft flew three crews to the Skylab space station and performed the historic joint U.S.-Soviet mission in 1975.

Apollo

William A. Anders

United States of America

Gemini 7

This mission shattered all prior records, lasting an impressive 14 days. The crew capsule served as the rendezvous target for the crew of Gemini 6A, and along with Gemini 6A marked the only time two crewed NASA spacecraft were in orbit at the same time. This became the first time two spacecraft rendezvoused in orbit and the first time a U.S. astronaut took their suit off during a mission. The crew also tested improved hygiene products and equipment and suggested changes ultimately used on the Apollo spacecraft.

Gemini was a two-person spacecraft designed to prove technologies and procedures for the Apollo lunar landings. Crews proved rendezvous and docking as well as transfer from one ship to another via spacewalk were possible. Gemini demonstrated that humans could live and work in space for the length of time needed for a lunar flight.

Gemini

Frank Borman

Gemini 12

The final flight of project Gemini succeeding in achieving its last remaining goal: to demonstrate that an astronaut could easily and effectively work outside a spacecraft. Over a two hour spacewalk, Buzz Aldrin proved that the addition of handrails outside the spacecraft and training for the spacewalk underwater made spacewalking easy and efficient. Underwater training is still used today by NASA and Russia for spacewalks. For a time, it appeared Gemini 12 might overlap with the Apollo 1 crew mission. Plans were created for such a dual-program flight. Delays to Apollo 1 ultimately forced NASA to abandon this plan. Splashing down at 19:21 UTC on November 15th, 1966, Gemini 12 brought the program to an end. NASA believed it was ready for the Moon. Two months later, the three member crew of Apollo 1 were killed in a spacecraft fire during a launch pad training exercise. NASA, in fact, was not ready.

Apollo 13

NASA's finest hour. What was supposed to be the third human lunar landing, Apollo 13 suffered a catastrophic failure of its oxygen tanks, leaving the Command Module (called Odyssey) without oxygen. Odyssey was then powered down and the Lunar Module (Aquarius) powered up. The crew took shelter in Aquarius, which had its own oxygen and life support systems. Two never-planned-for or conceived of burns of Aquarius' lunar landing engine took place to bring Apollo 13 quickly around the Moon and back to Earth. However, Aquarius only had enough power, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide scrubbers for two people for 45 hours -- not the three people it now had to keep alive for several days. Through on-the-fly engineering in Mission Control and the crew ripping apart clothing and procedure manuals, they were able to stretch the use of the carbon dioxide scrubbers to make it back to Earth. They restricted themselves to just 0.2 liters of water per person per day and turned off all nonessential power. Temperatures dropped as low as 3°C. Swinging around the Moon, the Apollo 13 crew reached a maximum distance of 400,171 km from Earth, a record that stands to this day. Because Aquarius had to protect the crew as long as possible, the entire ship had to make the return trip to Earth instead of being disposed of at the Moon. Canadian engineers at the University of Toronto determined the point in the timeline (just before atmospheric reentry) at which to undock Aquarius, in order to have enough air pressure to push it safely away from Odyssey and send any surviving pieces into the Tonga Trench in the Pacific Ocean. This was important because there was a nuclear power source on board as part of a planned lunar surface experiment -- if it survived reentry it needed to fall into the deep ocean to satisfy Atomic Energy Commission recommendations. Against all odds, Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise safely splashed down in the Pacific inside the Odyssey module. The mission is hailed to this day as "The most successful failure" in human spaceflight and as "NASA's finest hour."

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